Canada's Mountainous Marvels: Safeguarding Unique Ecosystems and Species
By Ciara Raudsepp-Hearne, Chloe Debyser, Ian Adams, Kim Gauthier-Schampaert, Maria Leung, Zachary Moore, Lucy Poley, and Jessica Reid
Early autumn in the Tombstone Mountains of the Northwest Territories. Photo: Maria Leung
Biodiversity refers to the variety of all living things on Earth, including plants, animals, and microorganisms, as well as the ecosystems they form. It’s crucial because it supports ecosystem health, provides resources like food and medicine, and helps maintain a balanced environment essential for human survival and well-being. And mountains play a vital role in supporting biodiversity due to their unique features.
Mountains act as natural barriers, isolating species and allowing them to evolve separately into new species. During ice ages, mountains served as refuges for species, allowing them to survive and continue evolving when species in other landscapes disappeared. The geological makeup of mountains, whether formed from ancient seas or volcanic activity, influences soil composition and plant and animal life. Mountains also impact local climates, creating areas of heavy rainfall on one side and dry conditions on the other, resulting in a rich mix of ecosystems also influenced by altitude. All of these factors make mountains incredibly important for biodiversity, and very magical places to explore.
Canada is not known as a biodiversity “hotspot,” especially compared to tropical regions, but the sheer size of the country means that we host significant biodiversity that is unique to our landscapes. While caribou and polar bears often steal the spotlight, our country is also home to an array of unique animals, plants, and fungi, many of which are found nowhere else on Earth. Yet many of these species and ecosystems remain unfamiliar to Canadians, highlighting a critical need for awareness to ensure their survival in this time of rapid biodiversity loss. That’s the goal of a collaborative initiative that started in 2019 to identify Canada’s Key Biodiversity Areas (www. kbacanada.org).
Key Biodiversity Areas (KBAs) are sites that contribute significantly to the global persistence of biodiversity. These areas are identified based on rigorous scientific criteria, focusing on sites that support concentrations of rare and threatened species, unique ecosystems, key ecological processes such as migration and breeding, and sites of the highest ecological integrity. A site must hold a significant proportion of a species population or ecosystem extent to qualify as a KBA.
Mapping and documenting these crucial areas is a collaborative effort involving governments, NGOs, Indigenous communities, and academic institutions, all working together to better understand Canada’s natural heritage. Mapping and sharing information about KBAs draws attention to places that have exceptional biodiversity value and play an essential role in preserving the biodiversity on our planet. KBAs are places where we need to prioritize stewardship and conservation action.
“During ice ages, mountains served as refuges for species”
Map of Canadian mountain Key Biodiversity Areas. Mountain delineations obtained from Snethlage et al (2022). Coordinate reference system: Canada Albers Equal Area Conic
Mountain KBAs
There are 172 KBAs identified across Canada’s mountains, from the Pacific Coast, Interior, Rockies, and Alaska-Yukon ranges in the west, to the Canadian Shield and Appalachian ranges in the east, and in the Arctic Cordillera. These KBAs represent a wide diversity of montane ecosystems, including coniferous forests, alpine tundra, scenic valleys, and arctic coastlines. All are located within the traditional territories of Inuit, First Nations, and Métis peoples.
The diversity of species featured within these sites is surprising. To date, 206 species have been found to meet KBA criteria within mountain KBAs, including 89 vertebrate species and 79 vascular plants, and fewer invertebrates, non-vascular plants, and fungi. Many are rare species, found in only a few locations in Canada or in the world, making the sites they inhabit uniquely important. Others are threatened by resource development, recreational activities, harvesting, and climate change. The remaining species, such as migratory birds and caribou, aggregate in large numbers within specific sites, rendering these areas disproportionately important to their survival. Below, we highlight Canada’s mountain KBAs and the unique species that inhabit them.
“The diversity of species featured within these sites is surprising. ”
Taxonomic diversity with Canadian mountain KBAs
Western Canada
Western Canada is defined by mountains. From the Coast Range that lines the Pacific to the Kispiox, Monashee, Selkirk, Cariboo, and Purcells that generate inland rainforests, to the iconic Rocky Mountains that divide British Columbia from Alberta, and finally further north to the great ranges of Yukon, mountains are Western Canada’s signature feature. KBAs in BC are almost all influenced by montane geography, regardless of whether they’re situated in mountains or not. Canada’s most endangered mammal, the Vancouver Island Marmot (Marmota vancouverensis), occurs at Nanaimo Lakes and Strathcona KBAs. Restricted to mountain-top colonies, this species is dependent on open alpine tundra environments and threatened by a warming climate that is prompting the treeline to creep ever-higher into this habitat. The species is a textbook example of how mountains spur new species. Closely related to the more common Hoary Marmot (Marmota caligata) on the mainland, Vancouver Island Marmot are genetically distinct because their remote habitats were isolated for so long.
Upper Chilliwack Watershed KBA lies at the north end of the Cascade Mountains. These ancient volcanic slopes support several species adapted to wet forests and steep mountain streams: Coastal Giant Salamander (Dicamptodon tenebrosus), Tall Bugbane (Actaea elata), and Black Swift (Cypseloides niger). A significant portion of Canada’s Mountain Beaver (Aplodontia rufa) range is also here. A unique mammal not related to typical beavers, they live partially underground and rely on the continually damp conditions created by their mountain-side home.
Mountain Caribou is perhaps one of the most iconic Canadian mountain species. Several KBAs have been nominated for Southern and Central Mountain Caribou populations (Rangifer tarandus pop. 1 and pop. 18), including Klinse-Za in the ancestral homelands of Saulteau and West Moberly First Nations in northeastern BC. Stewardship actions have reversed this herd’s drastic decline and returned hope for caribou that roam the old-growth forests of these mountain slopes. Mountain Caribou extend into the northeastern slopes of the Rocky Mountains in Alberta as well, inhabiting parks like Jasper National park, as well as lower elevation habitats situated outside of protected areas.
The eastern slopes of the Rocky Mountains comprise only a small portion of Alberta, but they contain iconic biodiversity. KBAs here include well-known sites such as Banff Thermal Springs and Castleguard Cave, which both support the only known occurrences of endemic invertebrates – “endemic” meaning they’re species found nowhere else in the world, placing full responsibility for stewardship on Canadians. Further south, the proposed Castle-Waterton-Akamina KBA contains a concentration of Pygmy Whitefish (Prosopium coulterii pop. 6) and Deepwater Sculpin (Myoxocephalus thompsonii pop. 6), plus several rare plants only known from this region like Rocky Mountain Dwarf Primrose (Douglasia montana) and Alpine Glacier Poppy (Papaver pygmaeum). There are several KBAs being proposed throughout the eastern slopes where there are high abundances of three native trout (Bull Trout Salvelinus confluentus, Athabasca Rainbow Trout Oncorhynchus mykiss pop. 45, and Westslope Cutthroat Trout Oncorhynchus clarkii lewisi), which are threatened by hybridization with stocked fish and habitat perturbations.
Further north, Yukon KBAs host species that are unique to Yukon and neighbouring Alaska, and species that share their distribution with Eurasia, but not the rest of Canada. Plants such as Spiked Saxifrage (Micranthes spicata), Yukon Draba (Draba yukonensis), and Yukon Wild Buckwheat (Eriogonum flavum var. aquilinum), inhabited Beringia, an area that remained unglaciated in northwestern North America and northeastern Eurasia. The connection between the continents, the Bering land bridge, was intermittent, emerging when glaciers expanded and disappearing underwater when glaciers receded. Likewise, animals and plants teetered between periods of intercontinental mixing and intracontinental evolution. Higher alpine areas that stayed above the formation of glacial ice became refugia, isolated islands for species fortunate enough to survive while others became extinct. One of the surviving plants, the Yukon Podistera (Podistera yukonensis), is found in just a few locations across this region. Talus, rocky outcrops, and exposed ridges characterize the KBAs of four large populations of this long-lived species (Apex Mountain, Incised Peak, Chandindu River, and Fifteenmile KBAs).
The habitats of Beringian species are diverse, ranging from mountain tops and valley bottom streams to grassland meadows and sand dunes. Aeolian deposits indicate that dunes were more common before colonizing plants stabilized the sites. Still, two sand dune species, Dune Tachinid Fly (Germaria angustata) and Baikal Sedge (Carex sabulosa), which also live in Eurasia, persist in several Yukon KBAs (Carcross Dunes, Kluane National Park and Reserve: Dezadeash-Kaskawulsh Confluence, Kusawa Territorial Park: Takhini River KBAs). At these sites, katabatic winds funneling between mountains and repeated wave action redeposit sand, favouring dune adapted species while keeping encroaching vegetation at bay.
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This site is on the traditional territories of Saulteau First Nation and West Moberly First Nation. This site also lies within Treaty 8 and territories of the Tse’khene (Sekanki), Kelly Lake Metis Settlement Society, Takla First Nation (part of Tse’khene Tribal Council), Dënéndeh, and Beaver.
Criteria Met: National - Threatened species and Geographically-restricted species
Biodiversity elements meeting KBA criteria: Caribou Central Mountain population (Rangifer tarandus pop. 18)
The Klinse-Za caribou herd is estimated to have about 100 adults, supporting 15.3% of the Central Mountain population in Canada. Intensive, Indigenous-led management actions such as the protection of pregnant females and wolf reductions in the area have raised the herd’s abundance from 38 individuals in 2013 to 158 by 2024 (C. Lamb, personal communication, August 2024). Further actions have been taken to protect the old growth forests, composed of species such as Subalpine Fir (Abies lasiocarpa), Engelmann Spruce (Picea engelmannii), Hybrid White Spruce (P. glauca x engelmannii), and Lodgepole Pine (Pinus contorta) (McNay et al. 2022), that are critical to caribou habitat through the creation of Old Growth Management Areas, Wildlife Habitat Areas, and a 2,000 square kilometer Provincial Park in 2024. Reflecting on these efforts, Naomi Owens-Beek, a Saulteau First Nation member and Nîkanêse Wah tzee Stewardship Society board member said, “observing the incremental increase of the Klinse-Za subpopulation is humbling to experience; it’s inspiring that our efforts are truly making a positive outcome for mountain caribou and biodiversity.” Linking the efforts back to the role of culture and guidance from Elders, Tamara Dokkie, a West Moberly First Nation member and Nîkanêse Wah tzee Stewardship Society board member said, “Our elders told us the caribou have always looked after us and now it is time for us to look after the caribou.”
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This site is located on traditional Treaty 7 territory. These lands are a gathering place for the Niitsitapi from the Blackfoot Confederacy, of whom the Siksika, Kainai, and Piikani First Nations are part of; the Îyârhe Nakoda of the Chiniki, Bearspaw, and Wesley First Nations; the Tsuut’ina First Nation; and the Métis Nation of Alberta, Region III within the historical Northwest Métis Homeland.
Criteria Met: Global - Threatened species and Geographically-restricted species
Biodiversity elements meeting KBA criteria: Banff Springs Snail (Physella johnsoni) Nestled within the stunning landscape of Banff National Park, the Banff Thermal Springs KBA encompasses seven small-scale sulphurous thermal springs. These unique springs host fragile ecosystems characterized by extreme conditions such as high temperatures, high concentrations of dissolved minerals, and low oxygen levels (COSEWIC 2008). This challenging environment provides a niche for specialized invertebrates to flourish, including the Banff Springs Snail. This is the only place in the world in which this species occurs and thus this area is heavily managed and monitored by Parks Canada as subpopulations throughout the springs can undergo extreme population fluctuations year to year.
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This site is within traditional territory of Carcross-Tagish First Nations and includes settlement lands.
Criteria Met: National - Geographically restricted invertebrate and vascular plants
Biodiversity elements meeting KBA Criteria: Dune Tachinid Fly (Germaria angustata) and Baikal Sedge (Carex sabulosa)
The Carcross Dunes is the most accessible sand dune ecosystem in Yukon. The accessibility also makes it the most vulnerable. It is bisected by a highway, borders the town of Carcross, includes an extensive beach along Bennett Lake, and sees many summer visitors from cruise ships docked in Skagway, Alaska. Damage from recreation vehicles, urban development, and invasive species continue to threaten the rare ecosystem. The dunes are a place of discovery, with species yet to be named and other unsolved mysteries (i.e., the reasons why these plants and animals only thrive in sand dunes; what species the Dune Tachinid Fly parasitizes to complete its life cycle; and how did the Eurasian species such as the Baikal Sedge and Kamchatka Crane Fly (Tipula kamchatkensis) end up in a small pocket of the Yukon).
Eastern and Arctic mountains
The St. Lawrence River Estuary in Quebec is one of the deepest and largest estuaries in the world and evokes images of flocking shorebirds, foggy seascapes, waters teeming with marine mammals, and sandbanks covered in grasses. Yet, the estuary and its adjoining gulf are also framed by two major mountain ranges: the Laurentian Highlands on its northern shore, and the Appalachian Mountains, crowned by the Chic-Chocs, on the south shore. Both ranges are home to a diversity of unique and threatened species at the center of KBA identification efforts in the province: vertebrates ranging from Spring Salamander (Gyrinophilus porphyriticus) to Woodland Caribou (Rangifer tarandus caribou), Gaspésie Grasshopper (Melanoplus gaspesiensis), and a number of plants. At least nine KBAs will dot these mountainous regions of Quebec.
Several KBAs are found on the Gaspé Peninsula, a 20,000 kilometre-squared landmass jutting into the southern Gulf of St. Lawrence. Its rugged, mountainous interior, part of the Appalachian Mountains, hides an uncommon ecosystem for such southern latitudes – the tundra – as well as a remarkable number of endemic plants. Many are arctic-alpine or Cordilleran-associated species left behind by retreating ice sheets at the end of the last glaciation. One such glacial relic is Quebec Rockcress (Boechera quebecensis), a short herbaceous plant with delicate white flowers that persists only on the region’s limestone cliffs and escarpments. The Lac de la Falaise KBA, located midway between Forillon National Park and the Chic-Chocs, has been recognized for its importance to the species.
Stretching along the northeastern edge of Canada, from Labrador in the south up along Baffin, Devon, Ellesmere, Bylot, and numerous smaller Arctic islands, lies the Arctic Cordillera mountain chain. This region is characterized by glaciers and ice caps, deep oceanic fiords, and ice and rock barrens. Little life persists at higher elevations due to extreme cold and wind. Lower down, pockets of tundra provide a haven for low-lying shrubs, flowers, and animals during the brief Arctic summer, while the cold, nutrient-rich ocean waters along coastlines teem with aquatic life.
“Little life persists at higher elevations due to extreme cold and wind.”
Here we find Canada’s northernmost National Park, which is also our northernmost KBA: Quttinirpaaq National Park - Tanquary Fiord. Along the coastlines of the Arctic Cordillera region, several sites that host enormous concentrations of seabirds are being investigated to see if they meet KBA criteria. Seabirds gathering in these places in large numbers for breeding and feeding in the rich Arctic waters include Black-legged Kittiwake (Rissa tridactyla), Common Ringed Plover (Charadrius hiaticula), Ivory Gull (Pagophila eburnea), Thick-billed Murre (Uria lomvia), Common Eider (Somateria mollissima), Dovekie (Alle alle), Northern Fulmar (Fulmarus glacialis), and King Eider (Somateria spectabilis). On Southwest Bylot Island, a concentration of globally threatened Snowy Owl (Bubo scandiacus) may also meet KBA criteria.
Finally, the remote, undisturbed nature of the Arctic Cordillera means that there is high potential to identify KBAs here that meet KBA Criterion C: large areas of globally outstanding ecological integrity, or in other words, the healthiest landscapes remaining on the planet. Few of these regions, characterized by little to no industrial disturbance and healthy, fully functioning ecosystems, still exist, making the Arctic Cordillera an important place for global ecological integrity. Identifying Criterion C KBAs can help to highlight the ecological health and rugged beauty of this spectacular mountain chain.
Quebec Rockress is a short, herbaceous annual or short-term perennial plant only found on limestone cliffs and escarpments of the Gaspé Peninsula, in eastern Quebec. Photo: Étienne Léveillé-Bourret
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This site is on the territory of the Mi’gmaq (Micmac) Nation of Gespeg, the Gespe’gewa’gi (Gespeg-Conseil 2024), and the territories claimed by modern Indigenous groups who signed peace and friendship treaties in Quebec (ATRIS 2023).
Criteria met: Global - Threatened species and Geographically-restricted species
Biodiversity elements meeting KBA criteria: Quebec Rockcress (Boechera quebecensis) Located on the Gaspé Peninsula in eastern Quebec, in the Appalachian Mountains, Lac de la Falaise KBA is found in a mainly coniferous forest (MRNF 2024) and consists of two escarpments separated by a narrow plateau. The site hosts approximately 25% of the world population of the Quebec Rockcress, an Endangered species endemic to the area (COSEWIC 2017), making it exceptionally important for the global persistence of this species. The escarpments that Quebec Rockcress inhabits are quasi-vertical walls of dolomitic limestone (COSEWIC 2017; MELCCFP 2024). Because these are also favorites of rock-climbers, Quebec Rockcress has been a casualty to route cleaning at other sites in Quebec. Climbers, mind this delicate cliff-specialist!
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The site is within Nunavut for which the Inuit have customary jurisdiction.
Criteria met: National - Threatened species
Biodiversity elements meeting KBA criteria: Porsild’s Bryum (Haplodontium macrocarpum)
Quttinirpaaq National Park - Tanquary Fiord KBA, near the northern tip of Ellesmere Island in Nunavut, is a landscape of sparsely vegetated, steep gullies peppered by cliffs and waterfalls. Despite the harsh conditions, life persists even here, and the site holds a nationally significant proportion of the Threatened moss species Porsild’s Bryum. This tiny, bright green moss grows in colonies no larger than the human hand which only occur in shaded, calcium-rich areas that are constantly wet during the growing season. Within the KBA, Porsild’s Bryum clings to crevices, overhanging rocks, and boulders receiving water from nearby seeps, creeks, or waterfalls. The site is situated within Quttinirpaaq National Park and is co-managed by Parks Canada and the Inuit. Porsild’s Bryum.
“Some of these areas are protected, but most are not. ”
Porsild’s Bryum (Haplodontium macrocarpum).Photo: Devon Earlcription
Our shared responsibility
Canada’s mountainous regions are essential for maintaining global biodiversity due to their unique and varied ecosystems. From the majestic peaks of the Rockies to the remote Arctic Cordillera, each mountain range hosts a unique array of species and habitats, many of which are found nowhere else on Earth. Efforts to identify and steward Key Biodiversity Areas within these mountain landscapes are vital for preserving the ecological integrity and natural and cultural heritage of these regions. Some of these areas are protected, but most are not. By raising awareness and fostering collaborative conservation initiatives, we can ensure that these irreplaceable environments and the species they support continue to thrive for future generations. Exploring and appreciating the richness of life in these mountain KBAs not only deepens our connection to nature, but also strengthens our commitment to safeguarding our planet’s biodiversity. The authors are part of the team at Wildlife Conservation Society Canada who are identifying Key Biodiversity Areas across Canada. Along with partners at Birds Canada and NatureServe Canada, the team is responsible for working with experts and communities across the country to scope new sites, gather data, and develop detailed proposals for each KBA, showing that KBA criteria are met. The team is spread out across Canada, with specific regional expertise and a wealth of technical and natural history knowledge. To learn more about this team and others involved in the work, visit https:// kbacanada.org/whos-involved/
References
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